Access Door-to-Door: An Intercity Efficiency and Distributional Analysis of the Costs of Travel by Plane, Train, and Automobile

Key Takeaways

• Air travel yields highest door‑to‑door accessibility across China
• Rail and highway lag in cost‑weighted accessibility metrics
• Optimal‑mode scenario improves overall equity but harms intra‑regional equity
• Geographic constraints amplify air’s advantage over land transport
• Dense urban cores see reduced equity under optimal‑mode mix

Pulse Analysis

Air travel’s dominance in door‑to‑door accessibility stems from its ability to bypass physical barriers that limit rail and highway networks. By integrating first‑mile, intercity, and last‑mile costs, the study reveals that, despite higher ticket prices, air offers superior reach in regions like Northeast China’s peninsulas where rail lines are sparse. This insight challenges traditional infrastructure planning that often prioritizes ground expansion without accounting for the full travel chain, suggesting that strategic airport upgrades could yield disproportionate accessibility gains.

The optimal‑mode scenario, which selects the cheapest mode for each trip, demonstrates a nuanced equity landscape. While it raises average accessibility nationwide, it inadvertently narrows equity within high‑density corridors such as the Yangtze River Delta, where rail and highway already provide strong service. Consequently, passengers in these cores may experience reduced relative benefits, highlighting the importance of localized policy tweaks—like subsidized rail fares or integrated ticketing—to preserve intra‑regional fairness while leveraging cost‑effective options elsewhere.

For policymakers and investors, the findings underscore a dual strategy: reinforce air connectivity in geographically constrained zones and enhance ground networks where they already perform well. Aligning funding with these differentiated needs can optimize the cost‑benefit ratio of transport projects, support balanced regional growth, and ensure that accessibility improvements do not come at the expense of equity. As urbanization accelerates, such data‑driven, mode‑specific planning becomes essential for sustainable mobility ecosystems.